Part 1: भारतीय वायुसेना का संकट - GE Engine Delays, HAL Monopoly और Squadron Strength की समस्या

क्या है Indian Air Force के साथ गड़बड़?

1. GE Engine Deal

 

भारतीय वायुसेना (IAF) आज बहुत बड़ी मुश्किलों का सामना कर रही है। GE F414 इंजन के लिए तेजस Mk2 और AMCA जेट्स की डिलीवरी में तीन साल की देरी हो चुकी है। पहले 2023 में MoU हुआ था, अब मार्च 2026 तक का इंतजार है। यह सिर्फ शुरुआत है।

GE F404 इंजन जो Tejas Mk1A के लिए चाहिए थे, उन्हें भी अभी तक सही मायने में नहीं मिले। 2023 से ही deliveries miss हो रही हैं। 2025 के बीच तक सिर्फ 3 इंजन मिले हैं। HAL को हर साल 12-16 जेट्स बनाने हैं, लेकिन इंजन न मिलने से वो भी नहीं हो पा रहा। GE ने मार्च 2026 में 12 इंजन देने का वादा किया है, पर उस पर भी निर्भर नहीं हो सकते।

GE Engine Deal में क्या समस्या है? तीन मुख्य समस्याएं हैं GE के साथ negotiations में:

• Technology Transfer का झगड़ा : भारत चाहता है कि कम से कम 80-100% technology transfer हो ताकि भारत आगे जा सके। GE हमेशा कुछ बातें रोक कर रखता है - source code, manufacturing के secrets, सब कुछ पूरा नहीं देता। यह भारत की आत्मनिर्भरता में रोड़ा अटकाता है।

• कीमत का सवाल:  कितना दाम दिया जाए, कितनी मात्रा कब तक deliveries हो - ये सब कुछ लड़ाई है।

• US Export Controls: अमेरिका की एक्सपोर्ट policy है - सब किसी को नहीं दे सकते। Political tensions, sanctions, ये सब चलती रहती है। हिंदुस्तान के लिए भी rules बदल जाते हैं।

• Supply Chain की समस्या: दुनिया में कोविड के बाद से सब कुछ दिक्कत में है। इसी वजह से भारत अब France के Safran कंपनी को भी देखने लगा है। Tejas Mk2 के इंजन के लिए Safran एक विकल्प बन सकता है।

2. Squadron Strength: IAF कितना कमजोर हो गया?

यह सबसे बड़ी समस्या है। आजकल भारतीय वायुसेना के पास सिर्फ 29 squadrons हैं। यह बहुत कम है। Authorized strength क्या होनी चाहिए? IAF को 42.5 squadrons होने चाहिए। लेकिन आधे भी नहीं हैं।

Regional comparison देखिए:

क्या यह खतरनाक है? हाँ, यह बहुत खतरनाक है। दो मोर्चा युद्ध की स्थिति में (Pakistan और China दोनों से) भारत की ताकत काफी कम है। 60 साल पहले जितने squadron थे, अब उससे भी कम हैं। क्यों Squadron Strength गिर रही है?

• MiG-21 की Retirement: भारत ने अपने सबसे पुराने विमान MiG-21 को रिटायर कर दिया। ये लड़ाकू विमान 60 साल पुराने हो गए थे। इसके बाद से ही numbers गिरने लगे।

• Tejas Mk1A की धीमी डिलीवरी: Tejas Mk1A को भारत का भविष्य माना जाता था। लेकिन 2025-26 में सिर्फ 12 aircraft ही मिलने हैं। इंजन की कमी इसका सबब है। HAL की नई production line 24 जेट्स सालाना बना सकती है, पर इंजन न मिलने से वो भी बेकार है।

• Future में और भी गिरावट: Jaguar aircraft (जो भारत के पास एकमात्र मध्यम दूरी का बमवर्षक है) को 2030 से रिटायर करना है। फिर: MiG-29UPG: 2033-2037 में रिटायर होंगे | Mirage 2000: 2035 के बाद रिटायर होंगे |  इन सबके रिटायरमेंट के बाद, अगर नए जेट्स न आएं तो numbers और भी गिरेंगे।

3. Jaguar Retirement: बड़ी समस्या आने वाली है

Jaguar aircraft काफी खास हैं भारत के लिए। ये एकमात्र strike aircraft हैं जिन्हें nuclear weapons ले जाने के लिए design किया गया था। पर ये 50 साल पुराने हो गए।

यह रिटायरमेंट कब शुरू होगी?

• 2030 से: Jaguar DARIN I और II को phase out करना शुरू
• 2033-2037: MiG-29UPG को भी retire करेंगे
• 2035 के बाद: Mirage 2000H और बाकी Jaguar DARIN-III

क्या बदले में नए विमान हैं? यही समस्या है! अभी तक कोई direct replacement नहीं है। इसी लिए भारत urgently चाहता है:

• 114 और Rafale जेट्स
• संभव है कि Su-57 भी खरीदे (Russia से)
• Tejas Mk2 को भी जल्दी से तैयार करना है

अगर यह नहीं हुआ तो 2030 के बाद squadron strength और भी तेजी से गिरेगी।

4. Defense Budget: पैसे की कमी भी है

भारत अपने GDP का सिर्फ 1.9% ही defense पर खर्च करता है। यह बहुत कम है, दूसरों की तुलना में:

• Global Average: 2.5%
• Pakistan: 4.0% (अपनी छोटी economy में भी इतना खर्च करता है!)
• USA: 3.5%
• China: 1.7% (लेकिन absolute numbers में कहीं ज्यादा)

भारत को कम से कम 2.5% पर जाना चाहिए। साल 2025-26 में total defense budget ₹6.81 लाख करोड़ ($86.1 billion) है, लेकिन इसमें से सिर्फ 26.43% ही नई खरीद के लिए जाता है। बाकी pension और maintenance में खर्च होता है।

5. संरचनात्मक समस्याएं: HAL और Industry

अभी तक बात विदेशी खरीद की हुई। लेकिन भारत को अपने जेट्स भी बनाने हैं। यही है असली आत्मनिर्भरता। पर इसके रास्ते में एक बहुत बड़ी समस्या है - HAL (Hindustan Aeronautics Limited). भारत के पास एक बड़ी समस्या है - सब कुछ HAL के कंधों पर है।

HAL क्या है? HAL भारत की रक्षा manufacturing का दिल है। लेकिन यह दिल अभी बीमार है। क्या बनाता है HAL?

• सभी लड़ाकू जेट्स (Tejas, MiG-21, MiG-27, Jaguar, Su-30MKI)
• सभी helicopters (Prachanda, Dhruv, आदि)
• Transport aircraft
• Trainers और दूसरे aircraft

कितना बड़ा है? 15,000 से ज्यादा लोग सीधे काम करते हैं | Tens of thousands of contractors के through काम करता है |  

HAL की समस्या: क्यों देरी हो रही है?  | HAL एकमात्र कंपनी है जो सब कुछ करती है: Production bottleneck हैयहाँ मुख्य समस्या है: "Large Order Book, Low Turnover"

HAL के पास क्या है? 

• Order book: ₹2.52 लाख करोड़ (2.52 trillion rupees!).
• Turnover (yearly sales): सिर्फ ₹32,000 करोड़

यह क्या मतलब है? मान लीजिए आपका restaurant है जिसके पास 10 साल के लिए advance bookings हैं, लेकिन आप सिर्फ 1 साल का revenue generate कर रहे हो। यही HAL की स्थिति है।

Orders का Breakdown:

• Tejas Mk1A (First Batch): ₹36,400 crores - 2024 तक deliver होने थे, अब 2026 में हो सकते हैं
• Tejas Mk1A (Second Batch): ₹63,000 crores (97 विमान) - Sept 2025 को order
• Prachanda Helicopters: 156 helicopters - Army को 90, Air Force को 66
• Advanced Light Helicopter Civilian: 34 helicopters - ₹873 crores
• Navy Dornier Upgrade: ₹2,890 crores

कुल order book next 10 साल तक भरा हुआ है! Why Turnover कम क्यों है? मुख्य कारण:

• Slow Production: HAL सालाना सिर्फ 24 Tejas बना सकता है, जबकि IAF को 35-40 चाहिए
• Integration Issues: Engines मिल जाते हैं, पर उन्हें aircraft के साथ integrate करना मुश्किल है
• Quality Control: हर aircraft को carefully test करना पड़ता है
• Bottleneck: सब कुछ HAL के हाथों में है, कहीं और नहीं बन सकता

पहले Bangalore में सिर्फ 8-16 jets/year बन रहे थे |  अब Nashik में 24 jets/year बना सकते हैं | दोनों together तो और भी ज्यादा, पर समस्या क्या है?  IAF को ₹40 jets/year चाहिए। हम सिर्फ 24 दे सकते हैं | Gap कैसे भरेगा?

• Private companies को भी Tejas के parts बनाने दो
• More sub-contractors
• Supply chain को improve करो
• Advanced Light Helicopter: शर्मनाक Story

भारत को defense manufacturing में market segmentation अपनाना चाहिए—L&T को wings, Mahindra को fuselage parts, Tata को avionics जैसे clear roles देकर specialized production बढ़ेगी। Flexible cost negotiation से L1 tendering norms छोड़ना होगा, क्योंकि delays या price changes में suppliers को नुकसान होता है और projects रुक जाते हैं। इससे private sector efficiency आएगी, HAL पर burden कम होगा, और Atmanirbhar Bharat तेजी से achieve होगा।

AMCA Project: HAL को Challenge

यहाँ सबसे बड़ा change हो रहा है। पहले क्या था? HAL सब कुछ करती थी - सब काम, सब तरफ का monopoly. अब क्या है? AMCA के लिए Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA) ने एक नया rule बनाया है:

ADA का Rule: Order Book का 1/3 Rule - यदि आपका order book आपके turnover का 3 गुना से ज्यादा है, तो आप AMCA के लिए bid नहीं कर सकते। HAL के लिए क्या मतलब है?

• Order book: ₹2.52 लाख करोड़
• Turnover: ₹32,000 करोड़
• Ratio: 8:1 (8 गुना!)

HAL को qualify करने के लिए turnover ₹85,000 crore होना चाहिए। फिलहाल वह सिर्फ ₹32,000 है। तो HAL AMCA के लिए bid भी नहीं कर सकता? सही कहा! HAL को अपनी existing orders तेजी से deliver करनी होंगी ताकि turnover बढ़े। फिर वह AMCA जैसे बड़े projects के लिए qualify हो सकता है।

क्या यह सही है? बिल्कुल सही! यह एक genius rule है क्योंकि:

• Incentive: HAL को तेजी से produce करने के लिए encourage करता है
• Quality: जब HAL अपनी orders deliver करेगा, तो turnover बढ़ेगा
• Competition: Private companies को भी मौका देता है AMCA के लिए
• Reform: Government HAL को reform करने के लिए force कर रहा है

Tejas Production: क्या बदल रहा है?

Tejas Mk1A के case में: बार-बार failures

• 2 साल की delay (2024 से 2026)
• अभी भी सिर्फ 38 विमान deliver हुए हैं (कुल 40 के पहले order में से 2 अभी बाकी हैं) (two-seater trainers)

क्यों इतनी देरी?  यह complicated है:

• Engine delays: GE से engines नहीं मिल रहे
• Avionics integration: Indian radar, electronic warfare systems को aircraft में fit करना मुश्किल है
• Quality control: हर jet को बार-बार test करना पड़ता है
• Supplier issues: Parts और materials की कमी

6. Other issues:  Advanced Jet Trainer की कमी भारत की वायुसेना को नए और आधुनिक Advanced Jet Trainers की सख्त जरूरत है ताकि युवा पायलटों को बेहतर प्रशिक्षण मिल सके। वर्तमान में इस्तेमाल हो रहा Hawk trainer पुराना हो चुका है और अब उसकी क्षमता आधुनिक विमानों की ट्रेनिंग के लिए पर्याप्त नहीं है। HAL अभी नया trainer develop नहीं कर पाया HAL ने अब तक एक नया indigenous advanced jet trainer विकसित नहीं किया है, जिसकी वजह से वायुसेना को विदेशी trainers पर निर्भर रहना पड़ रहा है। हालाँकि HAL का HLFT-42 प्रोजेक्ट प्रगति पर है, लेकिन इसे शुरूआती operational चरणों में लाने में अभी कुछ समय लगेगा।

अगले भाग में हम देखेंगे कि भारत कैसे इन समस्याओं का समाधान निकाल सकता है - विदेशी खरीद और स्वदेशी विकास दोनों से।

Part 2 पढ़ें: Part 2: India का Fighter Jet समाधान - Rafale, Tejas Mk2, और AMCA का रोडमैप

Part 3 पढ़ें: Part 3: भारत का Engine Revolution - Kaveri से लेकर 5th Gen Fighters तक

50 Pointers - Medieval-Like Fantasy Worlds - Last Part

Sparsh: 50 Pointers - Medieval-Like Fantasy Worlds - First Part

While the material foundations examined in Part 1 provide the scaffolding for mediaeval fantasy worlds, this second exploration with remaining 25 pointers delves into the intangible systems that actually hold societies together and tear them apart:

26. Weak Espionage and Intelligence: Inadequate spy networks left kingdoms exposed to manipulation, surprise attacks from rivals, and internal conspiracies, undermining state security. The Delhi Sultanate frequently fell victim to surprise invasions (particularly Timur's 1398 raid) due to inadequate intelligence gathering leading to entire populations killed or enslaved.

27. Prostitution and Urban Underworld: Prostitution is a common and tolerated feature of city life. The lives of sex workers intersected with the criminal underworld providing vital networks of information and serving as intermediaries for espionage, blackmail, and political intrigue. 

28. Secret Societies and Guilds: Various secret orders, merchant guilds, and assassins held invisible influence in politics and trade. Chinese cities maintained secret societies (triads, gangs) controlling trade monopolies and operating parallel power structures to official government.

29. Bandit Problems: Lawlessness in the countryside was widespread, with bandits and roaming armed groups threatening trade routes and rural safety. The major cause of banditry can be traced backed to lawlessness, peasant revolution and taxation.  Balkan mountain regions harbored bandits who sometimes became leaders of anti-Ottoman resistance movements.

30. Language Diversity: Kingdoms managed populations speaking multiple languages and dialects; scribes and officials skilled in various tongues were essential, though this sometimes-slowed administration. The Ottoman Empire administered populations speaking Turkish, Arabic, Greek, Serbian, Bulgarian and other languages

31. Military Strategy: Warfare employed formation-based infantry, cavalry charges, chariots, and sieges. Strategic formations like the phalanx provided advantages, but terrain often dictated tactics. Hit-and-run raids and scorched-earth policies were common in fragmented political landscapes.

32. Army Conscription Methods: Military manpower was often raised by feudal levies, conscription of peasants, or service owed by feudal lords, with varying degrees of effectiveness and morale.  Indian sultanates conscripted local populations with limited loyalty, often requiring military nobles to maintain private armies. Chinese dynasties employed both conscription and professional standing armies with complex ranking systems.

33. Military Weapons: Spears, swords, bows, chariots, and siege devices were primary weapons, with innovations influencing dominance. Chinese armies pioneered gunpowder weapons and employed cannons, rockets, and sophisticated siege technology.

34. Animals in War and Domestic Use: Horses were vital for cavalry, communication, and chariot warfare; war elephants by Indians were also used where terrain allowed, impacting battlefield dynamics. 

35. Siege Warfare and Fortification: Castles, walls, and fortified cities were focal points of defense, sieges could last years, severely affecting civilian populations.  Chinese dynasties invested heavily in Great Wall construction and city fortifications. Cities like Constantinople (1453) endured legendary multi-year sieges. 

36. Mercenaries and Foreign Soldiers: Kings often hired mercenaries whose loyalty was bought, bringing instability and opportunities for betrayal. These mercenaries persecuted by the enemy kingdom often brought intelligence from their homelands, creating security vulnerabilities but also expanding military capability. Islamic Caliphates hired Mamluks (enslaved warriors) and foreign mercenaries. 

37. Outright Defeat Had Catastrophic Consequences: Cities faced destruction and pillaging; defeated clans lost political control or were assimilated, causing long-term decline. The Mongol conquest of Baghdad (1258) under Hulagu Khan resulted in complete city destruction, massacres, and cultural devastation. 

38. Stalemates Resulted in Prolonged Fighting: Sieges caused resource depletion and population suffering, disrupting social order and triggering migrations without immediate massacres. The Han-Xiongnu Wars (133 BCE–89 CE) resulted in prolonged stalemate with neither side achieving decisive victory, causing century-long resource depletion, garrison fatigue, and peasant suffering. 

39. Slave Capturing and Trading: Warfare and raids often resulted in capturing slaves, who were traded or forced into labor. The term slave has its origins in the word Slav. The Slavs, who inhabited a large part of Eastern Europe, were taken as slaves by the Muslims of Spain during the ninth century AD. Ottoman conquests in Balkans involved systematic slave capture, particularly of young males recruited into janissary units. 

40. Looting Other Kingdoms When Crops Failed: Crop failures sometimes drove armies to raid neighbors for food and resources, sparking cycles of violence and revenge. When Mali faced periodic Saharan droughts affecting crop production, armies raided neighboring territories for food and resources. 

41. Magic and Mysticism: Even in mostly low-magic worlds, folklore, superstition, and secret occult knowledge impacted decision-making and daily life, often controlled or feared by ruling classes. The influence of ancient texts, scrolls, or magical artifacts often played key roles in legitimizing rulers, preserving knowledge, and shaping cultural or religious identity. 

42. Plague and Disease: Widespread diseases like the plague ravaged populations unpredictably, causing social collapse, labor shortages, and shifts in economic power. Plague spread along the Silk Road, devastating Central Asian cities and Chinese populations during the Tang Dynasty. 

43. Urban vs Rural Life: Tensions existed between ruling elites in fortified cities and rural peasants, who bore the brunt of taxation and military conscription. Inca Sassanid Persian Empire concentrated administrative wealth in capital cities while rural populations paid heavy taxes.

44. Festivals and Games: Grand seasonal or religious festivals and games punctuated life, serving as occasions for political maneuvering or popular unrest. The Delhi Sultanate conducted elephant fights, polo matches, and hunting festivals as occasions for elite competition and public spectacle. These festivals displayed the sultan's magnificence and military strength while crowds gathered for gambling and entertainment. Chinese dynasties conducted elaborate seasonal festivals synchronized with agricultural and cosmological cycles displaying the emperor's connection to heaven.

45. Education systems: Knowledge seekers—wandering scholars, ambitious youth, and desperate individuals hoping education would transform their circumstances. These dynamics created both stability (educated elites served state interests) and instability (educated individuals sometimes challenged established authority or created parallel power structures).  Islamic centers of learning (like Baghdad's House of Wisdom) attracted scholars seeking access to preserved knowledge—mathematics, astronomy, medicine, philosophy. However, access depended on patronage; scholars needed rulers or wealthy patrons. 

46. Prophecy and Relic Trade: The market for holy relics—bones of saints, fragments of sacred objects, or magical artifacts—created networks of dealers, forgers, and black markets. Stories of legendary heroes, chosen ones, or prophecies often drove through relics. These items often became central to power struggles or quests, much like historical relics such as the Holy Grail or the Egyptian pharaohs' burial treasures, which inspired worship, conquest, or exploration. Magical scrolls or texts in fantasy settings can parallel real-world grimoires

47. Rise and Fall of Dynasty: Ibn Khaldun comes was a 14th-century Islamic philosopher provided an insight based on the history of his native North Africa, was that there was a rhythm to the rise and fall of dynasties. Desert tribe members, he argued, always have more courage and social cohesion than settled, civilized folk, so occasionally, they will sweep in and conquer lands whose rulers have become corrupt and complacent. They create a new dynasty — and, over time, become corrupt and complacent themselves, ready to be overrun by a new set of barbarians.

48. Search for Natural Resources: Natural resources have always been central to economic development and political power. Control over valuable resources like minerals, timber, or fertile land fuels trade, wealth, and technological progress, but also competition and conflict.  Mining in fantasy worlds can be enriched by incorporating unique magical and alchemical theories about the formation of precious metals and ores. Consider a mining setting inspired by the Almaden-Puertollano Mines in Castile-La Mancha, Spain, where intensive mercury mining during the Middle Ages was crucial for silver extraction using amalgamation.

49. Innovation and Conflict:  The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid-15th century revolutionized the spread of knowledge and ideas but also triggered conflicts. The democratization of information challenged established religious and political authorities, such as during the Protestant Reformation when printed vernacular Bibles undermined Church control over scripture.

50.Impact of explorers and foreign envoys: The impact of explorers and foreign envoys on ancient kingdoms was profound in shaping political alliances, cultural exchanges, and economic opportunities. Explorers often opened new trade routes and brought back knowledge of distant lands, which could strengthen a kingdom's position or introduce new threats. For example, the journeys of Marco Polo to the Mongol Empire in the 13th century enhanced European knowledge about Asia, impacting trade and diplomacy. 

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When writing fantasy, make the world feel real by deciding how these things affect daily life, like how people travel or what they eat. Focus on the parts of the world that matter most to your story and show how the environment influences your characters and the challenges they face.  

The genre is brilliant in depiction as it subtly critiques real-world issues like power, corruption, and injustice through its depiction of societal decay, class disparity, and the challenges faced by outsiders against established orders. Explore genre of wizard, sword and sorcery. Happy writing!

50 Pointers - Medieval-Like Fantasy Worlds - First Part

What is the key reason behind the recent surge in popularity of science fiction and fantasy genres? The authors can reveal truths about society and politics when direct expression is suppressed by an unfavorable political and religious environment. Science fiction genre is a mirror image of fantasy (sword & sorcery) established from current time reference. The book is science fiction is when you're depressed about the future, fantasy is when you're depressed about the past, and literature is when you're depressed about the present.  Similarly, fantasy is when the technology the characters use is magic and sci-fi is when the magic the characters use is technology.

Common fantasy themes that readers easily recognize include resistance to tyranny, prophecies guiding destinies, hero-centered stories, journey to distant land and rags-to-riches journeys. I will not help the readers on these familiar themes of struggle, hope, and love that form the backbone of many beloved fantasy worlds. To create a rich and believable fantasy world, author can take inspiration from real-world examples and weave them into your story. The author has to make sure all these elements fit naturally with the culture, technology, and magic of your world. This helps readers feel like they are genuinely entering a new and exciting place. 

This first exploration contains 25 pointers for the foundational elements that give fantasy worlds believability and depth upon which all other elements of your fantasy world must rest: 

1. Geography: Start with creating map of the imagined land. Natural features such as mountains, rivers, deserts, and forests will shape political boundaries, defense strategies, and trade routes. For instance, mountainous and fragmented terrain like in Greece led to decentralized city-states.  Inca Empire (South America) stretched across diverse Andean terrain—from coastal deserts to high plateaus to rainforests—requiring strategic administrative centers like Cusco positioned to oversee these distinct regions. These geographical realities drive everything: where cities can flourish, which territories can be defended, where trade routes must inevitably concentrate.

2. Primary Occupation:  In a fantasy world, primary occupations could include agriculture, animal husbandry, mining, hunting, weaving, trading, and mercenary work. These occupations reflect a balance of survival, economy, and social structure that makes the fantasy world feel authentic and lively.  Access to fertile land and water resources will be vital for any conflict situation in the book. 

3. Climate Change: Dependence on rains made kingdoms vulnerable to droughts, floods, famines, and crop failures, which could lead to widespread peasant distress and riots, as variability in rainfall and soil degradation often intensified social and economic crises. The Mali and Songhai empires faced periodic droughts and floods that devastated the Niger River region, causing famine and peasant revolts.

4. Administrative Systems: Kingdoms had centralized or decentralized political structures with feudal lords or chieftains often wielding significant autonomy, sometimes undermining royal authority and complicating efforts to establish unified governance under evolving written laws and taxation systems. The Inca maintained a highly centralized bureaucracy with the Sapa Inca as absolute ruler, dividing the empire (Tawantinsuyu) into four provinces (suyus) governed by appointed regional governors (Apus), often family members. By contrast, the Mali Empire operated with more decentralized authority, where regional kingdoms retained autonomy while acknowledging the Mali emperor's supremacy. 

5. Feudal Loyalty and Betrayal: Feudal bonds were complex, where loyalty could be bought or broken, with vassals switching allegiances based on personal gain, fear, or ambition. The Balkans saw constant vassalage shifts, with Serbian and Bulgarian kingdoms oscillating between Ottoman and Habsburg allegiances.

6. Court Politics: Noble lords jostled for influence in the royal court, with competing princes and their mothers vying for power, alliances shifting frequently and making the court a hotbed of intrigue and betrayal. Rulers often prioritized family honor and petty rivalries over collective welfare, leading to disunity and weakening alliances among kingdoms, making them vulnerable to outside enemies. In Ottoman courts (Balkans), competing princes and their mothers orchestrated elaborate intrigues for power. The Delhi Sultanate saw frequent court conspiracies, with generals and nobles assassinating sultans and installing puppet rulers.

7. Wealth Spendings: Extravagance of ruling elites and political instability drained royal treasuries, reducing resources available for effective administration and military defense, weakening the kingdom's ability to respond to external threats. The Ottoman sultans (Balkans) maintained expensive imperial harems and palace hierarchies that strained state budgets.

8. Wealth Distribution: Wealth was concentrated in aristocratic landowners and temples, with limited economic growth; trade disruptions often affected royal revenues and governance capacity, while administrative reforms created tensions among citizens regarding the fairness of taxation and resource allocation. Chinese dynasties concentrated wealth among imperial family, bureaucrats, and landowners, creating resentment among peasants and merchants excluded from trade monopolies.

9. Dependency on Astrologers and Sacrifices for Key Decisions: Major state affairs, including battles and coronations, relied heavily on diviners and rituals to legitimize rulers and appease perceived supernatural forces, with kinship and lineage being the core of authority claims. Indian rajas consulted court Brahmins for auspicious planetary alignments before major decisions.

10. Gender Roles and Power: While patriarchal, some kingdoms allowed women significant behind-the-scenes influence or rare direct political power, shaping plots of intrigue. Islamic Caliphates witnessed powerful women wielding influence through palace networks—mothers of caliphs, wives with access to treasure, and concubines gathering intelligence.  In Imperial China, eunuchs managed the imperial household and were involved in state affairs, often wielding significant political power. 

11. Trade Dominated by a Class Causing Resentment: Trade and commerce were often controlled by merchant classes or minority groups, sometimes causing resentment among the land-owning aristocracy and peasants. Ancient families often clashed to secure monopolies over trade, turning legacy into a battlefield of dominance. In Mali, the merchant class (often Mandinka speakers and Muslim traders) monopolized the trans-Saharan gold and salt trade, while indigenous animist populations resented their commercial dominance and Islamic conversion pressure.

12. Currency: Early forms of money included commodity money and metal bars; coinage facilitated trade and taxation but also wealth concentration. Mali minted its own gold coins and used commodity money (gold dust, salt bars) for large transactions. Chinese dynasties used both coins and paper money, with counterfeiting severe punishments.

13. Legal Systems and Corruption: Justice could be brutal, arbitrary and corrupt, with trial by ordeal or combat accepted as legitimate. Mali's Islamic legal system (Sharia) was administered by qadis (Islamic judges) appointed by the ruler, creating potential for corruption. Punishments included amputation for theft and execution for serious crimes, applied inconsistently based on status and bribes. Alongside Islamic law, traditional dispute resolution involved ordeal testing (drinking poison, trial by water) to determine guilt, blending Islamic and indigenous justice systems.

14. Constant Existential Threat by Neighboring Kingdoms: Kingdoms existed in a state of perpetual tension and occasional warfare with neighboring realms, always preparing for invasion or retaliation.  The Inca faced constant threats from unconquered Amazonian tribes and rival pre-conquest factions seeking autonomy.

15. Buffer of Small Kingdoms Between Large Kingdoms: Smaller kingdoms often served as buffers or pawns between larger powers, their loyalties shifting according to immediate survival needs. The Balkans saw the Serbian Kingdom (under Stefan Dušan) and others act as buffers between Ottoman and Hungarian empires, their survival dependent on playing rivals against each other. 

16. Relationship by Marriage to Neighboring and Enemy Kingdoms: Political marriages served as tools for alliances, peace treaties, or deceit, interlinking royal families across often hostile borders.  Chinese dynasties married princesses to hostile tribes' leaders to secure temporary peace (like Han princess marriages to Xiongnu leaders). 

17. Problem Groups: The socially marginalized were labeled as problematic mainly because they threatened the power structures, not necessarily due to inherent problematic behavior.  In Ottoman Balkans, Christian populations were classified as dhimmis (protected but subordinate minorities), labeled as potential troublemakers.

18. Migration and Refugee Influx Due to War: Warfare in neighboring kingdoms caused displacement, with refugees flowing into more stable realms, adding strain to resources and social order. The Mamluk defeat of the Mongols—especially the famous Battle of ʿAyn Jālūt (1260)—was indeed strongly aided by refugees, particularly Khwarazmian, Kipchak, and other Turkic steppe migrants fleeing the Mongol invasions.

19. External Invasion: Glory and Trauma: The threat or onslaught of a powerful, nomadic conqueror reminiscent of Genghis Khan radically altered the political, social, and psychological landscape of affected kingdoms. The memory of such overwhelming conquest lived on in folklore, shaping hero myths, and ongoing cycles of vengeance or submission. Similarly, Franks under Charles Martel stopped the Umayyads at the Battle of Tours (732).

20. Rise of Cult Movement: Religious/Magical cults gained traction by promising salvation, divine favor, or power to disenfranchised populations and soldiers, especially amid instability.   The cult's leaders sometimes claimed exclusive access to divine truth, thereby labeling rivals as heretics or enemies.  From the Roman perspective, Christianity was the cult.

21. Schisms and Patronage: Competing sects or heretical movements challenged established religions, sometimes sparking wars or secret alliances. Rulers often used religious patronage to legitimize their rule, while diverse and sometimes conflicting religious movements influenced social cohesion and political alliances.  The Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church broke communion during the East–West Schism of 1054. 

22. Pilgrimage: Pilgrims traveled vast distances to sacred sites—holy shrines of legendary saints or deities, or places believed to possess miraculous powers. These journeys created distinctive political dynamics that enriched narrative possibilities. Pilgrimage could serve as cover for political refugees or criminals seeking absolution and new identities. Even, Mali's Mansa Musa's 1324 pilgrimage to Mecca became legendary for its extravagance and political importance, with his journey establishing Mali's legitimacy in the Islamic world.

23. Non-Violent Movements: Historical societies also developed sophisticated non-violent resistance movements that challenged power structures through spiritual authority, moral witness, and organized non-compliance. Buddhism emerged in ancient India as a direct challenge to Vedic Brahminical hierarchy. Buddhist monasteries (sanghas) became alternative power centers, attracting millions of adherents including lower castes, women, and merchants excluded from Brahminical privileges. 

24. Ancient Ruins and Forgotten Knowledge: Lost civilizations and ancient artifacts provided mysterious power and motives central to quests or conflicts. The Inca deliberately incorporated pre-Conquest Inca ruins (like Tiwanaku temples) into their ideology, claiming to inherit mystical power and legitimacy from earlier civilizations. Machu Picchu and other Inca sites were believed to hold astronomical and spiritual knowledge guiding imperial decisions.

25. Religious Transformation and Temple Destruction: Across world history, religions and empires have often replaced each other’s symbols or sacred sites. Iconoclasm is the belief in the importance of the destruction of icons and monuments, often for religious or political reasons. Hindu populations under Islamic sultanates-maintained temple worship and ritual practices despite official pressure for conversion and destruction of sacred sites. 

Continue to next part.....

Book Review: India's War - The Making of Modern South Asia, 1939-1945 by Srinath Raghavan

India's War: The Making of Modern South Asia, 1939-1945 by Srinath Raghavan

⭐⭐⭐⭐✰ Worth Reading

A French writer once asked: What made France a nation? He listed three factors – the French educational system, the French Army, and the French middle classes. In the Indian context, the Second World War served as a crucible for nation-making through different mechanisms. 

This is well documented in the book, India's War: The Making of Modern South Asia, 1939-1945. The book is an essential read for anyone interested in India’s involvement in World War II. Covering key wars and military operations, the book sheds light on the evolution of India's armed force & it’s the political, economic, monetary, and social impact on the nation.

The war mobilized over 2.5 million Indian soldiers between 1939 to 1945, and India underwent an extraordinary and irreversible change due to World War II. Hundreds of thousands of Indians suddenly found themselves in uniform, fighting in a global conflict. The book explains how the Indian Army evolved during World War II. Initially, the army was a colonial force serving British interests. But by the end of the war, the army had become a skilled and powerful fighting force. Indian soldiers fought in important battles across North Africa, Italy, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia. When Srinath Raghavan covers legendary battles of Imphal & Kohima, he dives into the heart of the battles and shows his military chops.

During World War II, the Indian National Congress (INC) first fought against British rule with peaceful protests, led by Mahatma Gandhi. In 1942, they started the Quit India Movement, asking the British to leave India immediately. The Congress did not support the war unless they were consulted. Despite this, many Indian soldiers and workers—over two and a half million—joined the war effort. The author establishes how the rise of the Muslim League and de-mobilization of the army veterans post 1945 and heightened tensions between Hindu-Muslims eventually led to India’s Partition. The author deserves praise for explaining all this so well.

The book highlights the Indian National Army (INA)  took a different approach and led India’s fight for independence under Subhas Chandra Bose. The INA fought alongside Japan against the British to liberate India. The book’s detailed discussion of Burma Campaign also offers an interesting lens on how Bose’s vision of armed resistance gained traction among some sectors of Indian society, even though the INA faced defeat.

The British Raj, which controlled India, was more than just a colonial entity during World War II. The book shows how the British Raj functioned like a "mini empire" of its own and became a vital part of the British Empire's war strategy.  The book clearly explains the urgent demands of military modernization and the wartime governance. 

The book also explores lesser-known aspects of the war economy explaining the heavy economic exploitation by the British government and yet the foundation for future industrial growth in India after the war. The British used Indian resources (both manpower and materials) to support their war efforts. While industries grew to support the war, rural India continued to suffer from poverty, hunger, and inflation.

India served as a major base for U.S. operations, receiving machinery, munitions, textiles, steel production equipment, locomotives, and various supplies to support Allied forces in the Burma-China-India theater.  The book shows how industrialization leads to creation of new working-class in India.  The author highlights that the war put a lot of economic pressure on India and showed conflicts in British rule. This pushed different groups in India to come together with a shared hope for independence. 

At times, the dense historical detail in the book may challenge casual readers, but it rewards those seeking depth. Beyond recounting South Asian history, the book compels readers to reflect on the war efforts and political transformation of India.  The book stands out as a compelling account of World War II from Indian perspective, offering both historical depth and political economy insights.

Book Review: Among the Believers: An Islamic Journey

Among the Believers: An Islamic Journey by V. S. Naipaul

⭐⭐⭐⭐✰ Worth Reading

History bears out the proposition that political revolutions have always been preceded by social and religious revolutions.  In Bangladesh, a significant number of people have converted to Islam over centuries, particularly during the medieval period when the region was influenced by conquest of Muslim rulers and proselytization by Sufi saints.

Today, there has been the rapid rise of radicalism in Bangladesh with the ouster of ex-Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina in the student protest.  The protest has now been hijacked by Islamic extremists. Over the years, there was a surge in madrasas, and this has led to growing religious fanaticism, with zealots aggressively pushing an Islamist agenda. With Islamist influence in power, Bangladesh is modifying national identity by erasing symbols of its secular past, including the removal of statues of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and attacking Hindu minority. 

The explanation about such rapid religious radicalism of Bangladesh or any more such converted societies is relevant to book published in 1981, Among the Believers: An Islamic Journey by the Nobel laureate V. S. Naipaul. The book is a controversial and critical travelogue in nature. The book describes a six-month journey across the Asian continent after the Iranian Revolution across Iran, Pakistan, Malaysia and Indonesia. These countries were originally Zoroastrian, Buddhist, Hindu and pagan. The history of these nations is built on conquest and conversion where a diverse and cutting-edge center of learning and trade during its time become engulfed by Islamic ideology. Through interviews and personal observations, Naipaul effort to understand societies conquered by Islam and the religious zeal gripping youth in these societies. The theme of the book is a study of capturing deep cultural and political shifts in the Muslim world post Iranian revolution. 

The author explains the crux of Islamic extremism as a form of ideological imperialism that denies the complex histories and cultures of converted peoples. The people who converted to Islam were encouraged to act like Arabs and follow their strict ways. The descendent of these converts started to forget and ignore their own rich history and culture. In the minds of these believers, being conquered by the Arabs and becoming like them is still seen as a way to be saved.

Naipaul observed that before 1979, there was two simultaneous spark of revolutions in Iran—communist and Islamic—both driven by utopianism. Naipaul visits Iran shortly after the success of Islamic Revolution. The revolution against Shah gained broad support to Ayatollah by promising a return to traditional values and social justice based on religion. After the revolution, Iran became an Islamic Republic, and communism lost influence in the country. Naipaul depicts a nation living through a dystopian dream. Although the official rhetoric had changed, the torture and executions didn't stop.  

Naipaul travels to Pakistan and make sweeping conclusion. He notes that Pakistan was born amid sectarian bloodshed and political chaos. Within a decade, the fragile democracy was overtaken by military rule, following the hanging of Pakistan’s prime minister in a coup three years earlier. Much attention in the book is drawn to the Muslim invasion of the Indian subcontinent, especially the Arab conquest of Sindh, which Naipaul describes as a foundational event shaping the collective psyche. Naipaul highlights how this narrative of conquest is seen by many in Pakistan and Bangladesh as a moment of salvation and religious dominance continues to fuel political Islam in contemporary Pakistan. 

Naipaul further travels to Malayasia and Indonesia situated in South-east Asia. Naipaul further describes Malaysia as a place where Islam initially blended easily with local customs and beliefs, creating a mixed or syncretic faith. However, this changed as missionaries arrived from Pakistan aiming to purify Islam and make it more orthodox. Many young Malays who studied abroad came back to their villages calling for stricter religious observance. 

Regarding Indonesia, Naipaul notes its history of cultural influence by Hinduism and Buddhism but highlights how youth movements sparked widespread Islamic conversions. Today, about 90% of Indonesians are Muslim. While Indonesia is constitutionally secular, religion plays a strong role the legal systems and the application of sharia law are common concerns.

Naipaul identifies Islam as a political and social system in ways other religions are not by delivering few strong messages. One, Islam’s message of equality often drew in poor and marginalized communities looking for dignity. Two, many converts saw Islam as a way to resist the dominance of traditional power. And three, by asking converts to reject their pre-Islamic past, the Islam turn them into more passionate believers than native Arabs themselves.

Jihad does not spring due to the lack of economic or social upliftment but their plain and simple aim of degrading the secular state and establishing sharia rule. Naipaul explains that Islamic extremism often arises among young people searching for identity, influenced by madarsa education and a desire for pure faith, yet it also creates conflict with ideas of modernity, culture, and politics. The brilliance of the book is in showing how extremism grew in some Islamic societies during the 1970s. Irrespective of personal expectations, this is no doubt an important book, but only as a starting point.  Highly recommended reading for the persons interested in Islamic societies.